What makes the pyramids of giza great

Many questions remain about the construction of these massive monuments, and theories abound as to the actual methods used. The workforce needed to build these structures is also still much discussed.

Discovery of a town for workers to the south of the plateau has offered some answers. It is likely that there was a permanent group of skilled craftsmen and builders who were supplemented by seasonal crews of approximately conscripted peasants. These crews were divided into gangs of men, with each group further divided into teams of Experiments indicate that these groups of 20 men could haul the 2.

An estimated stones could be moved daily from quarry to construction site, particularly when one considers that many of the blocks such as those in the upper courses were considerably smaller. We are used to seeing the pyramids at Giza in alluring photographs, where they appear as massive and remote monuments rising up from an open, barren desert.

Visitors might be surprised to find, then, that there is a golf course and resort only a few hundred feet from the Great Pyramid , and that the burgeoning suburbs of Giza part of the greater metropolitan area of Cairo have expanded right up to the foot of the Sphinx. This urban encroachment and the problems that come with it—such as pollution, waste, illegal activities, and auto traffic—are now the biggest threats to these invaluable examples of global cultural heritage.

It has supported the restoration of the Sphinx, as well as measures to curb the impact of tourism and manage the growth of the neighboring village. Still, threats to the site continue: air pollution from waste incineration contributes to the degradation of the stones , and the massive illegal quarrying of sand on the neighboring plateau has created holes large enough to be seen on Google Earth. The new constructions in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids rapidly increased.

The new constructions in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids extended many times. The new constructions in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids. Understanding the passage ways of rain water on the plateau, groundwater and sewage from both the Nile flood plain and Abo Roash area play an important role in the conservation strategy for the unique artifacts of the Giza Plateau Two regional aquifers are located behind the Sphinx statue with a water level at a depth of 1.

The second aquifer is a broken carbon aquifer that covers an area beneath the pyramid and sphinx plateau, where the depth of the groundwater ranges from 4 to 7 m.

The recharge of the aquifer underneath the Sphinx area occurred mainly through diversion of the water network and overall urbanization [ 7 ]. Due to the unique values of the three great pyramids in Giza, the present work is very important to analyze the nature and sustainability of the construction materials of the pyramid complex also to assess the effects of mechanical, dynamic and physiochemical actions of deterioration and structural deficiency, especially earthquakes and weathering impact on the pyramid structure.

Several tests and laboratory analyzes were carried out to determine the problems of the nature and sustainability of the outer casing stone blocks granite, marble and limestone , filling stone blocks limestone and the structural mortars joining the stone units used in the construction of the three great pyramids in Giza.

To investigate the above questions, we selected a total of 45 samples of fallen fragments from different locations around the three pyramids.

The selected samples belong to the back layers and facades and represent typical building material features. Eight thin sections were examined using polarized light microscopy to identify the petrographic and geochemical characteristics of these building materials stones and binding mortars.

X-ray diffraction XRD and X-ray florescence XRF probes were conducted to identify slices and ratios of the installation stones and mortar.

With a constant voltage of 40 kV, 30 m and the use of X-ray diffraction PW Engineering characteristics of the studied building materials granite, limestone and structural mortar were achieved. Fifteen cylindrical samples of stones were prepared to determine the petrophysical and geochemical properties. The Cheops, Khephren and Mykerinos pyramids are located in the north-western part of the Giza plateau see Fig.

The altitude above sea level of the rock bases surrounding these monuments is approximately 68 m for Khephren and 62 m for Kheops 60 m at the SE corner , as shown in Fig. Their rock base altitudes are approximately 22 m around the Sphinx and 38 m around Kentkawes [ 9 ]. Geomorphologically, the area under consideration is divided into four distinct units: the plateau, the cliff and the slopes, terraces and the Nile flood plain.

The height of the plateau ranges from 20 m in the northeastern and eastern bottom and The top of the Giza plateau is flat and varies in height from 60 to masl whereas the elevation of the area of the pyramids vary from 60 to 70 masl. The dip angles range from 4 o to 7 o for the eastern part of the plateau near the Sphinx [ 11 ]. The studies show that the monuments of the fourth dynasty of the plateau of Giza are built on a sedimentary sequence with dominant carbonated formations deposited in an epicontinental sea of variable depth.

All the authors agree that these sedimentary layers have the characteristics of the Mokattam formation and Maadi formation, from Middle to Late Eocene age, as shown in Fig. It indicates an increase in groundwater elevation from west to east modified after Sharafeldin et al. The dip of the layers of this monoclinal structure is homogeneous. This monoclinal is affected by hectometric faults with normal dominant and weak throw oriented NW—SE which does not affect the study sites.

The weak throw and the orientation of these faults essentially suggest a discrete deformation by synsedimentary normal faults during the Eocene deposition period. The entire plateau is affected by karstic processes, described by El Aref and Refai [ 14 ] and Dowidar and Abd-Allah [ 11 ], which developed according to the local structural and stratigraphic conditions and led to a particular morphology of stepped terraced escarpments, karst ridges and isolated hills.

These authors relate the development of karst features to Mediterranean climatic conditions [ 9 ]. From the observations made in the boat-pits, at the NE corner of the Cheops pyramid and on the esplanade around the pyramid, we have seen that the rock base of the monument is mainly composed of nummulitic packstone. It is however possible to establish the presence of original rocky hill, as shown in Fig. The Northern East corner of the great pyramid of Khufu is the visible part of the original hill [ 9 ].

The Northern East corner of the great pyramid. The visible part of the original hill. Boatpit located at the NE of the pyramid showing pyramid base geological series. Petri [ 15 ] observed the rock in the inner proportions at an altitude of 8 m above the level of the scheme.

For Eyth [ 16 ] the maximum height of the rock platform is They observed natural rock in the galleries of the pyramid of Cheops and Khephren where the lining of the walls had disappeared [ 9 ]. The study area fractures are found in three major groups heading west—northwest, northwest and northeast.

Fractures to the west and northwest are predominant in the northern, western and eastern sides of the Pyramids of Cheops and North of the Pyramids of Chephren [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].

Depending on the depth of the groundwater contour map, there are two groundwater systems in the study area. The first part relates to the groundwater aquifer system and covers the eastern part of the Sphinx area where the depth of the groundwater ranges from 1.

The second system is linked to water. The bearing layers belong to the formation of broken limestone below Sphinx area , where the depth of groundwater ranges from 4 to 7 m below the surface [ 7 ].

According to historical recordings the strong earthquakes and seismic events that have stuck the Giza area induced small or medium damages and structural deficiency to the pyramids complex. Up to the end of the ninth century the secular number of reported earthquakes fluctuates between zero and three.

A relatively high number eight of earthquakes has been reported in the tenth century. The reported earthquakes reach their highest number 17 in the nineteenth century [ 18 ]. The Question: What is the reason for the proven resistance of the monuments to the seismic events of the past? The instrumental seismicity map indicates that the pyramids site is characterized by very low seismicity setting [ 19 ].

The site selection and the geological properties of the area, being away from seismic effects, floods and groundwater levels, the stability of the geometric form of the pyramid, the solidity of the structural engineering and precision of execution arguably are the reasons why the Great Pyramids of Giza are the only survivors of the seven wonders of the ancient world.

Also, the isoseismal intensity contour map reflected that the pyramid site has not been affected by intensity value more than VI on Mercalli scale. The sedimentary layers where the pyramids were considered a suitable foundation that can safely support the massive rock structure.

Also the spectrum acceleration coefficient and force in the rock Formations are much lower than the spectrum acceleration Coefficient and larger force in the soft and medium soils in particular the clay soil as shown in Fig. Note: soil type coefficient should be examined for the top 30 m of soil or rock Formations layer. Also the ground accelerations are strongly modified by the soil conditions.

Rock sites will have high frequency shaking, while on soft soil sites high frequencies short period will be reduced or filtered out, but low frequencies will be amplified as shown in Fig. The construction details, where the rock keys were used to stabilize the slope against slippage in the Great Pyramid very functional especially during earthquakes. It is amazing to note that the maximum static stress under the Greater Pyramids is about kPa; yet this huge stress value did not entail any observed or likely foundation failure bearing capacity or excessive settlement.

Show that the builders had taken into consideration the likelihood of seismic loading. Founding of the monuments for the most part on solid rock and good quality of construction of the foundations favour their good anti seismic behavior.

The Pyramidal shape represents an extraordinary advantage, since the pyramid is the most earthquake-resistant structure possible, even more than the domes.

For the construction details; several layers of smoothed stones without any mortars or sticky materials between them actually form a kind of base isolation for the foundations, where some flat small stones like pillow were laid to absorb the first shock of earthquake force on the pre-prepared soil under foundations.

Some big stones layers were put over these small stones. The pyramid shaped building is suitable in earthquake prone area due to its higher stiffness and less displacement.

The only earthquake that affected the pyramids was in the 14th century on August 8, Later, explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, many of the outer casing stones around the base of the Khufu Pyramid can be seen today in site, displaying the same workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries [ 19 ].

Arabic sources reported that this earthquake was the strongest in Egypt, particularly in Alexandria. In Cairo, almost all houses suffered some damage and many large public buildings collapsed. The earthquake caused panic, and women run into the streets without their veils.

Minarets of the mosques of Cairo were particularly affected. In Alexandria, many houses were ruined and killed a number of peoples. The lighthouse was shattered and its top collapsed. The damage extended to Southern Egypt up to Qus. This earthquake was placed by Sieberg to Faiyum, south of Cairo because of the severe damage in Middle Egypt. It was also reported that this earthquake caused large-scale damage in Rhodes and Crete. Ambraseys [ 23 ] placed its epicenter in the Mediterranean Sea as As-Souty mentioned that the advance of sea submerged half of Alexandria.

According to Arabic sources e. El-Maqrizy; As-Souty aftershocks continued during 3 weeks [ 18 ]. Recently the present area is near to relatively active earthquake area to the west of downtown Cairo. In that area, the most destructive event in recent history of Egypt took place in October 12th, The epicentral distance is only about 30 km. Damage report after that earthquake showed that great pyramids at Giza were severely damaged, and few years later a restoration plan was inaugurated to save the pyramids from more damage and instability problems.

In addition, other earthquake activities are also observed at east Cairo, like Aqaba earthquake in But Dahshour seismic zone constitutes the epicenter of the 12th October Cairo earthquake, and other seismic activity area produced earthquakes with magnitudes seldom reaching a magnitude of 5.

However, due to their proximity from the dense population Cairo metropolitan, such earthquakes were widely felt in greater Cairo area. The seismic zone at Dahshour is only few kilometers from the pyramids complex. The epicentral distance between Cairo earthquake and pyramids is few kilometers only. This proximity indicates that Dahshour seismic zone might have the highest effect especially at short periods. Most of the typical land failure effects were as extensive as soil liquefaction [ 24 ].

Giza Governorate was exposed to liquids during the 12 October earthquake [ 25 ]. Soil liquefaction has been reported in Giza. Since this is the last major earthquake affecting the monument, it is possible to assume that the present deformed form and the cracking of the inner chambers and the inner and outer stone layers [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ].

According to the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram in 13 October , several small outer casing blocks on the top of the great pyramid and supporting panels fell down during the Dahshuor earthquake It is important to note that after the first earthquake, permanent distortions and therefore moments of permanent curvature remain, so that global behavior, even in the case of low-level earthquakes, becomes weaker and weaker.

The structure is weakened after earthquakes between the blocks and deformations of the exits and pressure in the walls; from this point of view, the current situation is worse than in the past, as shown in Fig.

The increasing weakness of the structure after earthquake causing the friction and sliding between the casings and filling blocks. Show extremely slow degradation process which affected the backing stone blocks of the great pyramid, many blocks were detached. The outer casing stone blocks fell down completely in strong earthquake. The increasing weakness of the structure after earthquake causing the friction and sliding between the facing and backing blocks. After the earthquake, the Giza pyramids remained deserted and thus suffered a gradual deterioration.

Attention initially focused on the lateral boundaries of the remaining facades, where discontinuity and consequently the disappearance of peripheral stress led to a very disadvantageous situation, exacerbated by the dynamics that affected the current boundaries of the areas at risk.

Some cracks affect specific elements such as thresholds for openings, doors and foundation stones, as shown in Fig. Cracking of backing limestone blocks due to the overloading and material decay and strength regression, which affected the great pyramid stability. The honey comb differential weathering aspects are obvious on the surfaces of backing limestone blocks. The outer facing limestone blocks are missed completely. Alveolization develops her as cavities illustrating a combination of honeycombs and alignment following the natural bedding planes of the limestone.

It is difficult to determine the actual degree of stability. Despite this uncertainty, the state of internal pressure of the structure, on the contrary, is well defined. Loss of balance cannot occur during the adjustment. This is the correct aspect of the behavior of building structures that can explain the great durability and longevity of many historic buildings. The old builders were not Civil engineers.

There is something unique in the behavior of construction structures. This is due to the mechanical construction response, and differs significantly from those shown by the usual flexible materials. The difference is due to the low tensile strength of the construction and to the different response of the construction in stresses [ 30 ]. The pyramids were severely damaged on the surface of lower-level stone walls due to long-term static and dynamic actions, extensive cracks in walls caused mainly by settlements, and only because of seismic loads while the foundation stone sites were specifically removed.

The climatic conditions in the study area are semi-arid; warm in winter with little rain and hot to dry in summer. The climate is characterized by the following parameters. With regard to precipitation, the average annual rainfall does not exceed 25 mm, which is generally rare throughout the year, sometimes occurring in the form of sudden and short showers associated with wind. For winds, the prevailing wind blows are from the northwest and the monsoon known as Khamasin from the southwest and south.

The great pyramids at Giza and have been threatened by rising groundwater levels caused by water infiltration from the suburbs. Irrigation canals, mass urbanization surrounding GPP, as shown in Fig.

Two regional aquifers are located behind the Sphinx statue with a water level at a depth of 1. The recharge of the aquifer underneath the Sphinx area occurred mainly through diversion of the water network and overall urbanization.

The shallow water table elevation at Nazlet El-Samman village reaches 16—17 m and might recharge the aquifer below the Sphinx and Valley Temple, which is considered a severe hazard on the site [ 7 ]. There is deterioration in many parts of the three pyramids, associated with the aging of materials and the impact of aerial and ground water attack, and extreme stresses and cracks have accelerated the related phenomena, as shown in Fig.

Many blocks was detached and are hanging. Also represents the extremely slow degradation process which affected the backing limestone blocks of the Mykerinos, pyramid. The scattering of the granite facing blocks around the pyramid area is obvious. The pyramids stones are characterized by minute cracks, thin and superficial fractures, gaps in the stone veneer, separate stone layers and large gaps below the surficial hard crust. The backing limestone of the three pyramids are characterized by deep and hollow pits on the surface crust.

They are very thin and are based only on a few points. Some parts have lost their shell, and for this reason, large parts are characterized by strong separation. A severe phenomenon is the separation and peeling of the limestone layer due to the capillary rising of ground water, as shown in Fig. The backing limestone blocks characterized by weak cementation and adhesion due to the presence of small cracks, or pores, of secondary origin resulting from salt weathering.

Our analysis showed that the poor state of conservation of the three pyramids can be attributed to two main factors: internal or intrinsic causes, related to the characteristics of the fossil limestone itself e. While the latter began the process of weathering on limestone blocks, the development and increase of this process is due to lack of cohesion in limestone cement.

In fact, the very poor state of maintaining interior walls is due to several internal factors, as in the past, are strictly interconnected. On the other hand, external causes are associated with daily-acute environmental factors Seasonal thermal changes, solar radiation, wind direction and density—work in synergy with the internal causes of limestone degradation.

The most obvious and most common phenomenon is peeling or lids due to the capillary rising of ground water, specific both on the surface, in the form of high elevated chips, deeper parts, with thick detachable layers of limestone blocks. The layer is associated with temperature changes that cause the expansion and contraction cycles of the material, resulting in strong mechanical pressures. Cracking within crystals is also very common in the fragile deformation of posterior limestone blocks characterized by high gaps.

Means within crystals not between crystals. In highly penetrating stones, pressure builds up through the grain—the grain contact becomes large because the forces spread over very small areas stress is the strength of each area , making it easily breakable internally than if porosity is small or non-existent.

Moreover, the behavior of building materials under weathering conditions is predicted by the design of the element and constructive elements. On the other hand, there are some specific weathering forms that affect different granite blocks depending on the surrounding environmental conditions such as red crusts that dominate the case study of aggressive alternative drying and urination cycles, as well as other chemically or biologically related degradation factors for the weathering rates of silicate minerals.

Thus, it can be emphasized that the particular weathering model that characterizes our effects is due to all these factors and associated mechanisms; they consist mainly of complex types of iron oxide-dyed clay minerals. All these factors above require some conservation measures to protect the monuments through various scientific strategic plans containing many preventive and multiple measures. The pyramids used to be cased. The backing limestone blocks of Chephren pyramid was covered and cased with fine limestone blocks, also the stone cap now remain on the top of the Chephren pyramid.

The Mykerinos pyramid was covered and cased with granite facing blocks were quarried and imported from Aswan quarry, km from Cairo. Many facing blocks were taken and reused for the buildings of many Coptic and Islamic monuments in Cairo city, revealing the Fossiliferous limestone backing blocks. Having this fact, and investigating the formation of the stones of the building material of the pyramid and the ground surface where pyramids were built, one could easily find that the former one was chosen from the upper stratum of Eocenean site while the latter one is the original lower dense stratum of the Eocenean which was used as a base for the structure, as shown in Fig.

By mentioning that, the sum of masses of the pyramids almost reached That was the net weight of the blocks but, if we consider the wasted ruble resulted from shaping the blocks that number could easily have been doubled i. So, that height was used as the building material in situ for the pyramid. Having that elevation of the original plateau, the logic tells the fact of transposing the huge masses extracted from the high levels to levels below, and eight ramps were used to roll blocks down.

There is an example of such a ramp in front of the second pyramid [ 32 ]. It is noticed that the Great Pyramid was built on a carved outcrop using the existing topography at the time of its construction. From the observations made in the digging of boats, in the northeast corner of the pyramid of Khufu and on the deck around the pyramid, we have seen that the rocky base of the monument consists primarily of nummulitic packstone.

However, it is possible to prove the existence of an original rocky hill. X-ray diffraction was also used to identify minerals for whole stone powders and clay part. Semi-quantitative data are given for each metal present by their relative density the metal composition was determined by X-ray diffraction analysis, which was conducted through the National Center for Housing and Building Research in Cairo. Graphs of the representative body of limestone, specimens of structural limestone layers and samples of structural mortar layers were recorded.

The outer casing limestone consists of a whitish to whitish-yellow, very fine-grained limestone and can be easily distinguished from the heterogeneous filling limestone blocks with its much coarser microstructure.

Many of the outer casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid were fit together with extremely high precision.

Tura limestone formations were used as coated casing stones to cover the local limestone filling blocks of the Great Pyramid of Khufu.

Although some of the casing remains, most have been removed. However, each of the ten stones discovered had inscriptions on the back sides. It may be extracted from Tura quarry that belongs to the Mokattam Plateau. Hair and cracks are filled with fine stone with dust and soft sand. The upper units are indicated by weak limestone blocks with structural mortars. The layers of backing limestone blocks which is irregular in size can be observed, these layers constitutes up to four courses lie between the outer casing layers and the core masonry, this core is not exposed.

The backing limestone blocks of Cheops great pyramid is composed mainly of calcite CaCO 3 as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and quartz SiO 2 and rare of dolomite CaMg CO 3 2 , opaque minerals and halite NaCl. Results of XRD pattern are presented in Table 3. The more eastern parts of this central quarry field were generally exploited by Khafre to gain core material for his pyramid. The structural mortar joining the backing limestone blocks composed of gypsum Ca SO 4 H 2 O 2 , rock fragments composed of calcite and dolomite CaMg CO 3 2 , biotite, muscovite and rare quartz grains cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum, anhydrite CaSO 4 , calcite admixed with minor iron oxides.

The analysis results are presented and summarized in Table 4. The structural mortar joining the filling limestone blocks is composed of gypsum Ca SO 4 H 2 O 2 , anhydrite and rock fragments composed mainly of calcite associated with minor amounts of quartz, biotite, iron oxides and opaques cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum admixed with calcite, anhydrite, halite and iron oxides.

The analysis results are presented in Table 6. Secondary minerals are represented by iron oxides sericite and clay minerals. The analysis results are presented in Table 7. The backing limestone blocks of Mykerinos, pyramid is composed mainly of calcite CaCO 3 as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and rare amounts of quartz, gypsum and opaque minerals. Results of XRD pattern are presented in Table 8. In the present study more than 6 mortars samples were analyzed in terms of determination of chemical composition and salt content.

In an effort to correlate the salt content with the role and structure of the structural joining mortars. The structural mortar joining the backing limestone blocks is lime based mortar and composed mainly of Calcite, magnesian Mg. The analysis results are presented in Table 9. Microscopic examination and initial partial analysis on the front and back stone blocks and structural slurry samples from the three great pyramids were performed by the SEM attached with EDAX to study the texture, cement texture, fine image pores and the remaining carbonate portion on the filter paper to also identify structural mortar elements.

The morphological investigation indicate that the Fossiliferous limestone Biomicrite bodies from the three pyramids contain different surface features, such as the wide distribution deteriorated crusts, corroded quartz grains and the presence of some large voids and micro pores, as well as, some disintegration aspects in each grain, as shown in Fig. Observations of minute and deep cracks in the microstructure and salt crystallization into. A strong Calcium signal is observed. The micrographs show the reaction interfaces, service environment and degradation mechanism of the backing limestone blocks.

The composite structure of the stone is obvious where the disconnecting between the quartz and calcite grains is clear, also the abundance of salt content inside the pores and cracks between grains.

Deterioration of stone grain surface as a result of the weathering and mechanical factors. A strong calcium signal is observed. SEM observations indicated that there is a relative deposition of calcium from the binder due to physical and chemical actions that reduced alkalinity and strength and increased absorption of this lime mortars. The lime linker becomes less hydraulic but has the highest resistance to perfusion, and some observations have indicated the presence of a condensed halite within the mortar composition.

The presence of carbon and organic residues within the mortar composition was also apparent, as shown in Figs. Amorphous silica are participated on the limestone surfaces. A strong Calcium, sulphur and silica signals are observed. The micrographs show the characterization of the building material structures, contaminant analysis on and within building materials.

The open pits and pore holes due to extensive weathering is obvious. Amorphous silica is participated on the limestone surfaces.

Individual calcite grains are approximately 2. The energy-dispersed X-ray spectrometer EDS is a powerful tool for research studies on building materials, particularly structural mortars. Elemental quantification contained in a gypsum mortar microscope can be performed at excellent spatial accuracy.

The Sphinx may stand sentinel for the pharaoh's entire tomb complex. The third of the Giza Pyramids is considerably smaller than the first two. Built by Pharaoh Menkaure circa B. Each massive pyramid is but one part of a larger complex, including a palace, temples, solar boat pits, and other features. The ancient engineering feats at Giza were so impressive that even today scientists can't be sure how the pyramids were built. Yet they have learned much about the people who built them and the political power necessary to make it happen.

The builders were skilled, well-fed Egyptian workers who lived in a nearby temporary city. Archaeological digs on the fascinating site have revealed a highly organized community, rich with resources, that must have been backed by strong central authority. It's likely that communities across Egypt contributed workers, as well as food and other essentials, for what became in some ways a national project to display the wealth and control of the ancient pharaohs.

Such revelations have led Zahi Hawass , secretary general of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities and a National Geographic explorer-in-residence, to note that in one sense it was the Pyramids that built Egypt—rather than the other way around. If the Pyramids helped to build ancient Egypt, they also preserved it. Giza allows us to explore a long-vanished world. Tomb art includes depictions of ancient farmers working their fields and tending livestock, fishing and fowling, carpentry, costumes, religious rituals, and burial practices.

Inscriptions and texts also allow research into Egyptian grammar and language. To help make these precious resources accessible to all, Der Manuelian heads the Giza Archives Project, an enormous collection of Giza photographs, plans, drawings, manuscripts, object records, and expedition diaries that enables virtual visits to the plateau.

Older records preserve paintings or inscriptions that have since faded away, capture artifacts that have been lost or destroyed, and unlock tombs not accessible to the public. Armed with the output of the longest-running excavations ever at Giza, the Harvard-Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Expedition , Der Manuelian hopes to add international content and grow the archive into the world's central online repository for Giza-related material.

But he stresses that nothing could ever replicate, or replace, the experience of a personal visit to Giza. Tourism to the structures has declined rapidly since the advent of the Arab Spring in , when Egypt experienced a political upheaval that lasted years. The country has since been through several administration changes, and the instability means the future of tourism to the Pyramids is uncertain.

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